Digital Marketing: Benefits Consumers or Advertisers?

The internet has revolutionized a lot of things in our lives, including one of our favorite hobbies, shopping. Shopping has gone to a new level in the new millennium. Online shopping has hit the market with consumers and advertisers trying to buy and sell products. Customers now have the opportunity to search for their required products online, with a price that they want and with a price that fits their wallets. On the other hand, advertisers can now easily market their products online without even renting a shop!So many websites like Buy. com, Amazon. com, NewEgg. com and many others have come with their websites to feature various advertisers and suppliers to market their products on their websites where online consumers from across the globe can purchase these products and services. So who has more control over digital products and services? In my opinion, advertisers have more control over consumers. First of all, advertisers have the opportunity to market their products to an i nternational market without even having a shop.All they have to do is to search a product that is wanted by the market, and take some pictures of this product and put in on websites like e-bay or even create an own site for free! Potential consumers from all over the world will be able to see this product, and if it is a wanted product, business will start booming. According to recent research, it was estimated that there was around 1 billion internet users in 2008 and this number is expected to grow annually (Bischof et.al 2000). It could be assumed that the internet market would keep growing and that would give internet advertisers a vast opportunity to advertise and market their products online. Therefore, this mainly benefits advertisers over consumers. Apart from that, advertisers will also have the opportunity to position themselves to cater to selected market segments due to the wide variety of consumers from different countries and expectations (Bischof et. al 2000).To do th is, an advertiser must first study the market segment so that the advertiser can then study the behavior of the consumer and understand the consumers’ expectations and therefore capture this market segment (Rodgers & Thorson 2000). The size of this market share may increase or decrease according to population growth and other social, economic and environmental factors. Even if advertisers get 1% out of the 1 billion internet market, they will be making a lot of money due to the volume of business online.Apart from that, if advertisers could find their ideal positioning in the market, the advertiser’s brand or business name would be easily spread thru the internet as there are many third party websites that allow consumers to share their views and opinions on certain products or services. As a matter of fact, from the above, advertisers are actually choosing who they want to sell their products or services too, again a benefit towards advertisers rather than consumers. There is also a competitive environment online which would keep the company growing and not stagnant like a brick and mortar store.Advertisers can now track the number of customers that are visiting their websites (Wind & Mahajan 2001). This will give them an indication as to the number of customers that they get every month and the number of purchases made. With this information, these advertisers could get an idea of how well or how poor their business is doing; and by using this information, companies can then decide on their next course of action. Consumers can compare price, product brand, quality and other features online while sharing notes with other fellow consumers.As mentioned above, there are also third party websites who function as an intermediary between sellers and consumers who provide full details of price and product quality rating that makes it easy for consumers to choose from. Competition is good for advertisers as it allows the company to grow and make more pr ofit and therefore once again, benefits advertisers over consumers. Keeping this in mind, advertisers also have the opportunity to check out competition online and provide competitive products to their customers.According to Wang et. al (2001), customers who are happy with their purchases are less likely to have complaints and are therefore more prone to become return customers. Return customers could mean loyal customers that allow advertisers to sell their products and services without the worry of finding new online customers. Apart from that, if the advertisers’ product or service is compatible or better than the competitors’ products, there will be free publicity of the product by third party reviews.Although most research actually argue that consumers have more benefits than advertisers, based on the argument above, advertisers manipulate consumers into thinking that they have more benefits when they actually do not. Websites who promote themselves as catering to customer needs are actually advertisers themselves, and therefore this creates an illusion to the customer that they are controlling what and how the shop online. As a conclusion, digital marketing benefits the advertisers more than the consumers.To summarize, one of the reasons for this is that advertisers have the opportunity to market their products to an international market without even having a shop. Furthermore, advertisers will also have the opportunity to position themselves to cater to selected market segments due to the wide variety of consumers from different countries and expectations. Apart from that, there is also a competitive environment online which would keep the company growing and not stagnant like a brick and mortar store. Advertisers also have the opportunity to check out competition online and provide competitive products to their customers.

Night World : Daughters of Darkness Chapter 3

She's not looking so good,† Kestrel said, peering over Rowan's shoulder. Rowan said, â€Å"Oh,dear,† and sat down Great-aunt Opal was a mummy. Her skin was like leather: yellow-brown, hard, and smooth. Almost shiny. And the skin was all there was to her, just a leathery frame stretched over bones. She didn't have any hair. Her eye sockets were dark holes with dry tissue inside. Her nose was collapsed. â€Å"Poor auntie,† Rowan said. Her own brown eyes were wet. â€Å"We're going to look like that when we die,† Kestrel said musingly. Jade stamped her foot. â€Å"No, look,you guys! You're both missing it completely. Look atthat!† She swung a wild toe at the mummy's midsection. There, protruding from the blue-flowered housedress and the leathery skin, was a gigantic splinter of wood. It was almost as long as an arrow, thick at the base and tapered where it disappeared into Aunt Opal's chest. Flakes of white paint still clung to one side. Several other pickets were lying on the cellar floor. â€Å"Poor old thing,† Rowan said. â€Å"She must havebeen carrying them when she fell.† Jade looked at Kestrel. Kestrel looked back withexasperated golden eyes. There were few things they agreed on, but Rowan was one of them. â€Å"Rowan,† Kestrel said distinctly, â€Å"she wasstaked. â€Å" â€Å"Oh, no.† â€Å"Oh, yes,† Jade said. â€Å"Somebody killed her. And somebody who knew she was a vampire.† Rowan was shaking her head. â€Å"But who would know that?† â€Å"Well †¦Ã¢â‚¬  Jade thought. â€Å"Another vampire.† â€Å"Or a vampirehunter,†Kestrel said. Rowan looked up, shocked. â€Å"Those aren't real.They're just stories to frighten kids-aren't they?† Kestrel shrugged, but her golden eyes were dark. Jade shifted uneasily. The freedom she'd felt on the road, the peace in the living room-and now this. Suddenly she felt empty and isolated. Rowan sat down on the stairs, looking too tired and preoccupied to push back the lock of hair plastered to her forehead. â€Å"Maybe I shouldn't havebrought you here,† she said softly. â€Å"Maybe it's worsehere.† She didn't say it, but Jade could sense her next thought. Maybe we should go back â€Å"Nothingcould be worse,† Jade said fiercely. â€Å"And I'd die before I'd go back.† She meant it. Back to waiting on every man in sight? Back to arranged marriages and endless restrictions? Back to all those disapproving faces, so quick to condemn anything different, anything that wasn't done the way it had been done four hundred years ago? â€Å"Wecan't go back,† she said. â€Å"No, we can't,† Kestrel said dryly. â€Å"Literally. Unless we want to end up like Great-aunt Opal. Or†she paused significantly-â€Å"like Great-uncle Hodge.† Rowan looked up. â€Å"Don't even say that!† Jade's stomach felt like a clenched fist. â€Å"They wouldn't, she said, shoving back at the memory that was trying to emerge. â€Å"Not to their own grandkids. Not to us.† â€Å"The point,† Kestrel said, â€Å"is that we can't go back,so we have to go forward. We've got to figure out what we're going to do here without Aunt Opal tohelp us–especially if there's a vampire hunter around. But first, what are we going to do withthat?† She nodded toward the body. Rowan just shook her head helplessly. She lookedaround the cellar as if she might find an answer in a comer. Her gaze fell on Jade. It stopped there, and Jade could see the sisterly radar system turn on. â€Å"Jade. What's that in your jacket?† Jade was too wrung-out to lie. She opened thejacket and showed Rowan the kittens. â€Å"I didn't know my suitcase would kill them.† Rowan looked too wrung-out to be angry. She glanced heavenward, sighing. Then, looking back atJade sharply: â€Å"But why were you bringing them downhere?† â€Å"I wasn't. I was just looking for a shovel. I was going to bury them in the backyard.† There was a pause. Jade looked at her sisters and they looked at each other. Then all three of them looked at the kittens. Then they looked at Great-aunt Opal. Mary-Lynnette was crying. It was a beautiful night, a perfect night. An inversion layer was keeping the air overhead still and warm, and the seeing was excellent. There was very little light pollution and no direct light. The Victorian farmhouse just below Mary-Lynnette's hill wasmostly dark. Mrs. Burdock was always very consider ate about that. Above, the Milky Way cut diagonally across the sky like a river. To the south, where Mary-Lynnette had just directed her telescope, was the constellation Sagittarius, which always looked. more like a teapot than like an archer to her. And just above the spout of the teapot was a faintly pink patch of what looked like steam. It wasn't steam. It was clouds of stars. A star factory called the Lagoon Nebula. The dust and gas of dead stars was being recycled into hot young stars, just being born. It was four thousand and five hundred light-years away. And she was looking at it, right this minute. A seventeen-year-old kid with a second-hand Newtonian reflector telescope was watching the light of stars being born. Sometimes she was filled with so much awe andand-and-and longing-that she thought she might break to pieces. Since there was nobody else around, she could let the tears roll down her cheeks without pretending it was an allergy. After a while she had to sit back and wipe her nose and eyes on the shoulder of her T-shirt. Oh, come on, give it a rest now, she told herself.You're crazy, you know. She wished she hadn't thought of Jeremy earlier. Because now, for some reason, she kept picturinghim the way he'd looked that night when he came to watch the eclipse with her. His level brown eyes had held a spark of excitement, as if he really cared about what he was seeing. As if, for that moment, anyway, he understood. I have been one acquainted with the night, amaudlin little voice inside her chanted romantically, trying to get her to cry again. Yeah, right, Mary-Lynnette told the voice cynically. She reached for the bag of Cheetos she kept under her lawn chair. It was impossible to feel romantic and overwhelmed by grandeur while eating Cheetos. Saturn next, she thought, and wiped sticky orangecrumbs off her fingers. It was a good night for Saturn because its rings were just passing through theiredgewise position. She had to hurry because the moon was rising at 11:16. But before she turned her telescope toward Saturn, she took one last look at the Lagoon. Actuallyjust to the east of the Lagoon, trying to make out the open cluster of fainter stars she knew was there. She couldn't see it. Her eyes just weren't good enough. If she had a bigger telescope-if she lived inChile where the air was dry-if she could get above the earth's atmosphere . . . then she might have a chance. But for now . . . she was limited by the human eye. Human pupils just didn't open farther than 9 millimeters. Nothing to be done about that. She was just centering Saturn in the field of viewwhen a light went on behind the farmhouse below. Not a little porch light. A barnyard vapor lamp. Itilluminated the back property of the house like a searchlight. Mary-Lynnette sat back, annoyed. It didn't reallymatter-she could see Saturn anyway, see the rings that tonight were just a delicate silver line cutting across the center of the planet. But it was strange.Mrs. Burdock never turned the back light on at night. The girls, Mary-Lynnette thought. The nieces. Theymust have gotten there and she must be giving them a tour. Absently she reached for her binoculars. Shewas curious. They were good binoculars, Celestron Ultimas,sleek and lightweight. She used them for looking at everything from deep sky objects to the craters on the moon. Right now, they magnified the back of Mrs. Burdock's house ten times. She didn't see Mrs. Burdock, though. She could seethe garden. She could see the shed and the fenced-in area where Mrs. Burdock kept her goats. And shecould see three girls, all well illuminated by the vapor lamp. One had brown hair, one had golden hair, and one had hair the color of Jupiter's rings. That silvery.Like starlight. They were carrying something wrapped in plastic between them. Black plastic. Hefty garbage bags, if Mary-Lynnette wasn't mistaken. Now, what on earth were they doing with that? Burying it. The short one with the silvery hair had a shovel. She was a good little digger, too. In a few minutesshe had rooted up most of Mrs. Burdock's irises. Then the medium-sized one with the golden hairtook a turn, and last of all the tall one with the brown hair. Then they picked up the garbage-bagged objecteven though it was probably over five feet long, it seemed very light-and put it in the hole they'd just made. They began to shovel dirt back into the hole. No, Mary-Lynnette told herself. No, don't be ridiculous. Don't be insane. There's some mundane, per fectly commonplace explanation for this. The problem was, she couldn't think of any. No, no, no. This is notRear Window,we are not in the Twilight Zone. They're just burying-something. Some sort of †¦ ordinary †¦ What else besides a dead body was five-feet-andsome-odd-inches long, rigid, and needed to be wrapped in garbage bags before burial? And, Mary-Lynnette thought, feeling a rush ofadrenaline that made her heart beat hard. And. And†¦ Where was Mrs. Burdock? The adrenaline was tingling painfully in herpalms and feet. It made her feel out of control, which she hated. Her hands were shaking so badly she had to lower the binoculars. Mrs. B.'s okay. She's all right. Things like thisdon'thappenin real life. What would Nancy Drew do? Suddenly, in the middle of her panic, MaryLynnette felt a tiny giggle try to escape like a burp. Nancy Drew, of course, would hike right down there and investigate. She'd eavesdrop on the girls from behind a bush and then dig up the garden once they went back inside the house. But things like that didn't happen. Mary-Lynnette couldn't even imagine trying to dig up a neighbor's garden in the dead of night. She would get caught and it would be a humiliating farce. Mrs. Burdock would walk out of the house alive and alarmed, and Mary-Lynnette would dieof embarrassment trying to explain. In a book that might be amusing. In real life-she didn't even want to think about it. One good thing, it made her realize how absurd her paranoia was. Deep down, she obviously knew Mrs. B. was just fine. Otherwise, she wouldn't besitting here; she'd be calling the police, like any sensi ble person. Somehow, though, she suddenly felt tired. Not up to more starwatching. She checked her watch by the ruby glow of a red-filtered flashlight. Almost eleven-well, it was all over in sixteen minutes anyway. When the moon rose it would bleach out the sky. But before she broke down her telescope for the trip back, she picked up the binoculars again. Just one last look. The garden was empty. A rectangle of fresh darksoil showed where it had been violated. Even as Mary-Lynnette watched, the vapor lamp went out. It wouldn't do any harm to go over there tomorrow, Mary-Lynnette thought. Actually, I was goingto, anyway. I should welcome those girls to the neighborhood. I should return those pruning shears Dad borrowed and the knife Mrs. B. gave me to get my gas cap off. And of course I'll see Mrs. B. there, and then I'll know everything's okay. Ash reached the top of the winding road andstopped to admire the blazing point of light in the south. You really could see more from these isolated country towns. From here Jupiter, the king of the planets, looked like a UFO. â€Å"Where have you been?† a voice nearby said. â€Å"I'vebeen waiting for you for hours.† Ash answered without turning around. â€Å"Wherehave I been? Where have you been? We were supposed to meet onthat hill, Quinn.† Hands in his pockets, he pointed with an elbow. â€Å"Wrong. It was this hill and I've been sitting righthere waiting for you the entire time. But forget it. Are they here or aren't they?† Ash turned and walked unhurriedly to the open convertible that was parked just beside the road, itslights off. He leaned one elbow on the door, looking down. â€Å"They're here. I told you they would be. It was the only place for them to go.† â€Å"All three of them?† â€Å"Of course, all three of them. My sisters always stick together.† Quinn's lip curled. â€Å"Lamia are so wonderfully family oriented.† â€Å"And made vampires are so wonderfully . . . short,† Ash said serenely, looking at the sky again. Quinn gave him a look like black ice. His e-mail, compact body was utterly still inside the car. â€Å"Well, now, I never got to finish growing, did I?† he saidvery softly. â€Å"One of your ancestors took care of that.† Ash boosted himself to sit on the hood of the car,long legs dangling. â€Å"I think I may stop aging this year myself,† he said blandly, still looking down the slope. â€Å"Eighteen's not such a bad age.† â€Å"Maybe not if you have a choice,† Quinn said, his voice still as soft as dead leaves falling. â€Å"Try beingeighteen for four centuries-with no end in sight.† Ash turned to smile at him again. â€Å"Sorry. On my family's behalf.† â€Å"And I'm sorry for your family. The Redferns have been having a little trouble lately, haven't they? Let's see if I've got it right. First your uncle Hodge breaks Night World law and is appropriately punished-â€Å" â€Å"My great-uncle by marriage,† Ash interrupted in polite tones, holding one finger up. â€Å"He was a Burdock, not a Redfern. And that was over ten years ago.† â€Å"And then your aunt Opal-â€Å" â€Å"Mygreat-auntOpal-â€Å" â€Å"Disappears completely. Breaks off all contact withthe Night World. Apparently because she prefers living in the middle of nowhere with humans.† Ash shrugged, eyes fixed on the southern horizon. â€Å"It must be good hunting in the middle of nowhere with humans. No competition. And no Night Worldenforcement-no Elders putting a limit on how many you can bag.† â€Å"And no supervision,† Quinn said sourly. â€Å"Itdoesn't matter so much thatshe's been living here, but she's obviously been encouraging your sisters to join her. You should have informed on them whenyou found out they were writing to each other secretly.† Ash shrugged, uncomfortable. â€Å"It wasn't againstthe law. I didn't know what they had in mind.† â€Å"It's not just them,† Quinn said in his disturbingly soft voice. â€Å"You know there are rumors about that cousin of yours-James Rasmussen. People are saying that he fell in love with a human girl. That she was dying and he decided to change her withoutpermission. . . .† Ash slid off the hood and straightened. â€Å"I never listen to rumors,† he said, briskly and untruthfully. â€Å"Besides, that's not the problem right now, is it?† â€Å"No. The problem is your sisters and the mess they're in. And whether you can really do what's necessary to dean it up.† â€Å"Don't worry, Quinn. I can handle it.† â€Å"ButI doworry, Ash. I don't know how I let you talk me into this.† â€Å"You didn't. You lost that game of poker.† â€Å"And you cheated.† Quinn was looking off into a middle distance, his dark eyes narrowed, his moutha straight line. â€Å"I still think we should tell the Elders ,† he said abruptly. â€Å"It's the only way to guarantee a really thorough investigation.† â€Å"I don't see why it needs to be so thorough.They've only been here a few hours.† â€Å"Your sisters have only been here a few hours.Your aunt has been here-how long? Ten years?† â€Å"What have you got against my aunt, Quinn?† â€Å"Her husband was a traitor. She's a traitor now for encouraging those girls to run away. And who knowswhat she's been doing here in the last ten years? Who knows how many humans she's told about the Night World?† Ash shrugged, examining his nails. â€Å"Maybe she hasn't told any.† â€Å"And maybe she's told the whole town.† â€Å"Quinn,† Ash said patiently, speaking as if to avery young child, â€Å"if my aunt has broken the laws of the Night World, she has to die. For the family honor. Any blotch on that reflects onme.† â€Å"That's one thing I can count on,† Quinn said halfunder his breath. ‘,'Your self-interest. You always look after Number One, don't you?† â€Å"Doesn't everybody?† â€Å"Not everybody is quite so blatant about it.† There was a pause, then Quinn said, â€Å"And what about your sisters?† â€Å"What about them?† â€Å"Can you kill them if it's necessary?† Ash didn't blink. â€Å"Of course. If it's necessary. For the family honor.† â€Å"If they've let something slip about the NightWorld-â€Å" â€Å"They're not stupid.† â€Å"They're innocent. They might get tricked. That'swhat happens when you live on an island completely isolated from normal humans. You never learn how cunning vermin can be.† â€Å"Well, we know how cunning they can be,† Ash said, smiling. â€Å"And what to do about them.† For the first time Quinn himself smiled, a charming, almost dreamy smile. â€Å"Yes, I know your views on that. All right. I'll leave you here to take care of it. I don't need to tell you to check out every human those girls have had contact with. Do a good job and maybe you can save your familyhonor.† â€Å"Not to mention the embarrassment of a public trial.† â€Å"I'll come back in a week. And if you haven't got things under control, I go to the Elders. I don't mean your Redfern family Elders, either. I'm taking it all the way up to the joint Council.† â€Å"Oh, fine,† Ash said. â€Å"You know, you really ought to get a hobby, Quinn. Go hunting yourself. You're too repressed.† -252Quinn ignored that and said shortly, â€Å"Do you know where to start?† â€Å"Sure. The girls are right †¦ down †¦ there.† Ashturned east. With one eye shut, he zeroed in with his finger on a patch of light in the valley below. â€Å"At Burdock Farm. I'll check things out in town, then I'll go look up the nearest vermin.†

Effects of Prolonged Computer Usage Essay

With today’s technology wherein multimedia equipment are already part of almost every home and where the computer has become necessary tool in today’s education, the unlimited usage of the computers has definitely affected the academic performance of PT students. The purpose of this research is to know the Effects of Internet Usage to the PT Students’ Academic Performance. Universities may take effective measures and encourage students to teach how to evaluate information, to judge what is credible and what is false. Conceptual Framework Significance of the Study†¦ This study will be significant endeavour in knowing the effects of prolonged daily usage of computers on the academic performance of PT students. This study will also be beneficial to other students that use computers in their everyday lives. Moreover, this research will provide knowledge and understanding to the teachers and future researchers. Scope and Limitation†¦ This study will be focused on 20 PT Students and will aim to highlight the extent to which online activity can affect academic performance of PT students SY 2012-2013. The scope of effects of prolonged daily computer usage on academic performance of PT students derives a wide scope of related literature that is worth mentioning. Definition of Terms†¦ 1. Computer – Also called a â€Å"processor†. – An electronic device designed to accept data and perform mathematical and logical operations and display the results at high speed. 2. PT Students – The respondents of the research who are currently enrolled as second year Physical Therapy Students Batch 2016 in De La Salle Health Science Institute. 3. Physical Therapy – A branch of rehabilitative health that uses specially designed exercises and equipment to help patients regain or improve their physical abilities. Abbreviated PT. 4. Students – Denoting someone who is studying in order to enter a particular profession: â€Å"PT student†. 5. Carpal Tunnel Syndrome – A condition in which there is pressure on the median nerve, which is the nerve in the wrist that supplies feeling and movement to parts of the hand. It can lead to numbness, tingling, weakness, or muscle damage in the hand and fingers. Review of Related Literature†¦ In her book of â€Å"Education on the Internet†, Jill H. Ellsworth proclaims that the computer is a powerful releaser of emotion, motivation, and engagement for students. A way to communicate around the world, it can make any project more dynamic, and more interesting. Both teachers and students can be invigorated by the freshness and immediacy of the computer. The computer is a good resource, but until there are books and other needed resources the computer is a frill. Access to up-to-date information from around the world may assist in a lesson but Barrett L. Mosbacker expresses concerns when the computer takes on â€Å"a messianic quality†. If we encourage students to become addicted to continuously get bits of information from it, free of context and logical coherence, they will be ill-equipped for the rational dialog and analysis required for citizens in a civil and literate culture. Modern technology cannot substitute for a thorough reading of the great classics in literature, philosophy, and political history. Being technologically advanced and sophisticated is not the same thing as being literate and civilized. The quality of information on the computer should not be taken at face value. Information is not â€Å"true† simply because it is on the internet. Educators can utilize the computer to teach how to evaluate information, judge what is credible and what is false. In this regard, this literature review concerning the effects of computer usage to the academic performance of PT students, will address the following areas relevant to this study: * Importance of Computers; * Negative Effects of Prolonged Daily Usage of Computers; * Computer Use recommendations; * and the conclusion.. Importance of the Computer In the last decade the role of the computer has changed radically as the development of technology found new possibilities of using these ‘intelligent’ machines. Since the invention of the computer, a tool that has many useful purposes in college, such as researching a report, writing an essay, studying for an exam and creating presentations, students have spoiled themselves in its use and importance. However, computers also have a great number of negative effects on college students, affecting both health and academics. Students who are aware of these consequences are better prepared to make good choices regarding how much time they should spend on the computer and for what purposes. Negative Effects of Prolonged Daily Usage of Computers On Health: Frequent computer use often has effects on student health. One of the major negative effects is lack of sleep or difficulty sleeping. Students often use their computers for longer than they anticipate, lose track of time or find themselves making excuses to continue using their computer. In addition, frequent computer use can lead to physical problems, such as carpal tunnel syndrome, eyestrain, backache and headache. On Academics: Frequent computer use often has a negative effect on academic performance. PT students are often distracted by their computers and online activities, which can make them neglect their studies and homework, leading to declining grades. Some students attempt to multitask with their computers, such as chatting with friends through instant messaging while writing a research paper. This typically proves to be ineffective, and students who frequently use instant messaging while completing academic work often report declining grades. On Socialization: Computer use can have a negative effect on socialization. The Internet presents many opportunities for online socialization, particularly through instant messaging and online multiplayer games. However, frequent Internet users often withdraw from real life socialization opportunities, declining to participate in campus activities, study groups, parties or â€Å"hanging out† with friends to spend more time online. For instance, PT students who play online multiplayer video games play games about two-three times longer during a week than those playing more traditional games. Laptops (a factor): Students often bring their laptops to class for the purpose of quickly taking notes. Many classrooms are also equipped with wireless capabilities that students can use to access the Internet from their laptops. However, many students, like those we have in this school, particularly PT students, become distracted by their laptops, browsing the Internet or watching movies instead of taking notes or listening to the lesson. A professor at the University of Colorado at Boulder found that students in her classroom who used laptops performed, on average, 11 percent worse than nonlaptop using students. In addition, laptops can distract students sitting behind a laptop user. Some universities have banned the use of laptops in classrooms for these reasons. Recommendation on How to avoid Improper Use of Computer * Get a hobby or an interest that doesn’t involve the internet, video games, TV, cell phones, smartphones, portable media players or computers. Get involved with teams, clubs, sports, church, music, dancing, singing, etc. Go for a run with a friend or get exercise some other way. Go to bed on time and get a good night’s rest. Keep up with the local events in your community. There may be talks, film screenings, concerts, local sporting events, and book signings etc. Find some, as long as it is not on the internet, and get involved. * Limit your computer time. Make sure not to turn it on too many times a week. If you have a laptop, make sure to put it somewhere that you can remember but not somewhere that you see every day. Try keeping the lid closed when you are not using it; when the computer is not looking at you, you are less likely to use it. If you have a desktop PC, try not to go near it or put something over it like a sheet. * Try to stay off websites that are addictive. If you have problems getting off of these sites, just have someone else block these sites using your built in Content Advisor or if you are using Windows Vista, use the parental controls to control internet access and time on computer. * Regulate your sleeping pattern. A lot of people lose sleep while on the internet and mess up their sleeping pattern. It will be beneficial to you as you will become more organized and self disciplined. * Try using the computer at the library. You won’t be as tempted to look at certain websites (such as porn, etc.)and they do have a limit on how long you can stay online. Also, the library is a good place to get some good books and magazines to read, so you won’t be as tempted to be on the Internet at home.

Unit 3 -IP- Samples Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Unit 3 -IP- Samples - Essay Example In order to test whether the two variables have the same means, a two – sample, two – sided t – test must be performed. The two - tailed test is used because the concern is not whether some variable has a larger or lower mean, but whether the two means are different. As a result, the null hypothesis was established in equation (1) below, stating that the difference in means of the two samples is random. Since the sample sizes are relatively small, the t – test is used as the preferred test (Baltagi, 2008, p.31). The confidence interval is constructed in order to test this hypothesis. The confidence set with confidence level must be determined such that the true difference of the sample means is included in this set. What this implies is that the confidence set will include the true difference of population means with probability â€Å"at least † (Paolella, 2011, p. 13), as shown in equation (3) below: The confidence level chosen is 0.95, which implies that the corresponding confidence set will contain the true population mean difference with 95% probability (Paolella, 2011, p.13). The probability of rejecting the null hypothesis when it is true is as a result 5% (Baltagi, 2008, p.21). This error is denoted as type I error. The larger the confidence interval, the larger the probability that the null hypothesis will be accepted when it is in fact false (Baltagi, 2008, p.22). This error is denoted as type II error. A t – score must be calculated by subtracting the sample means and dividing by the square root of the adjusted population variances, which can be estimated through sample variances. There are in total degree of freedom (Neustadl, n.d.). The resulting t – value is  ± 2.009, which is also the critical region (Dawson, 2012;Ruud, 2000, p.224). The t – test can be seen in equation (4) below: The t – test is preferred because of the data dependence. Both variables have in common the type of

Fake Brands Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Fake Brands - Case Study Example As promulgated in different copyright laws in various countries, intellectual property rights ought to be observed. In terms of the right to produce and distribute certain products, only firms with patents have the right to do so (Kotler & Armstrong, 2010). Essentially, the aim of each business is to make profits and the interests of different businesses can only be protected by different copyright and intellectual property laws that are designed to protect the interests of individual companies. These laws help to prevent other unscrupulous people from reaping profits where they did not sow in the first place. The sale of counterfeit products is regarded as a form of high degree fraud and also classified as a serious offence. Luxury brands are in most cases the victims of counterfeit trade mainly as a result of the fact that they have premium prices that are beyond the reach of many people. In most cases, counterfeit trade is intentional but it has spiral impacts on the original producers of goods that are imitated. The companies will end up failing to realise their envisaged profits as a result of the fact that the consumers will prefer to buy affordable copycats at the expense of the producers of original brands. On the other hand, unsuspecting consumers can also be defrauded since they are hoodwinked into believing that they are buying original brands only to realise that they are fake when they have been delivered. Counterfeit trade is a problem of serious concern across the whole globe. According to The Gurdian (28 April, 2014), â€Å"A specialist police unit has shut down more than 2,500 websites selling counterfeit goods believed to be worth tens of millions of pounds.† This shows the extent to which this problem is a serious cause of concern in different parts of the globe. Trade of counterfeit goods is a bad product though some people may justify it

Due Process Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Due Process - Essay Example The significance of due process to the United States criminal justice system is that it protects criminals from the government. Due process guarantees that no individual is deprived of their rights of life, liberty, or property without first begin given a chance to argue their own case (Morrison, 2008). If any of these aspects are at risk of being rid of, then due process is implemented, allowing them first a hearing or trial to determine their side of the case. Due process essentially goes along the lines of â€Å"innocent until proven guilty†; unless a person has been indeed proven guilty, they cannot be treated as something other than innocent, meaning that they are entitled to everything that the law offers them. While some states only allow due process to be implemented for people of the state, there are many other states that allow it to include individuals as well. Due process has helped many people in the criminal justice system hold on to their rights until a verdict has been set in their case. In a country that prides itself on freedom, the due process clause properly allows it in all

Virtual and Social Media Report 2-4-3 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Virtual and Social Media Report 2-4-3 - Essay Example One of the main aims behind using this software is for people to create synergistic websites that promote discussion on the subject matter at hand. Hosted by third parties, Wikis are very popular amongst browsers who prefer to leave their input on various issues and/or who like to simply share information they have on the topic. Generally, web users who like to interact with others regarding any particular topic use wikis. Thus, wikis enable an increased virtual and social media communication. However, the main purpose of wikis is to augment people’s knowledge about any given topic – though they do give the netizens a chance to remove off-topic material from the page or website. Wikis enable interaction via information sharing, as well as input of comments and suggestions. Not only do they increase knowledge of netizens, but, as stated earlier, they enable them to enhance their interactional skills, thereby increasing an exchange of ideas and interaction on an individual level. On a corporate level, wikis help companies in forming networks that augment efficiency by simplifying tasks. Not only do companies get their message across to targeted groups, but they also receive input from them at the same time, thus, enabling them to promote their merchandise, services and/or proposals more ably. Wikis also aid companies in working together with their clients as well as managing various projects. The strengths of wikis include its appealing nature, whereby whatever the target audience of the wikis is, participation is always obtained. Since wikis are not daunting or controlled strictly, the users find them easy to use, thereby enhancing communication. Moreover, wikis help promote the idea of data exchange or information sharing. Another strength lies in the flexibility of the wikis; they can be altered to meet the needs of the users. The weaknesses of the wikis lie in their strengths as well. As

Computer, Programming,signal Processing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Computer, Programming,signal Processing - Essay Example It is found that various current sources in the human brain are capable to respond against similar EEG. The forward problem and the inverse problem can be diagrammatically represented with the help of source model having current dipole capable to develop neural currents which are always found localized in small regions. The electroencephalogram system consists of some connecting devices which are meant to connect with both the scalp of the individual and personal computer. The process taking place in the brain is reflected over the surface of the scalp. This is the reason why electrodes and connections are provided on the scalp. Then electrode paste is applied on the scalp and after that electrodes are placed on them. The scalp provides information to the small box attached to the computer system and the whole device after processing the information sent back to the user. Numerous neurological wave patterns can be collected with the help of this EEG system. These electrical wave patterns developing inside the brain are reflected at the scalp region. These reflections are passed in to the storage unit of the computer and the electrodes kept on the scalp region send signals of voltage variations to the amplifier. The success of this technology mainly depends on the positioning and developing contact with the electrodes. Due to this reason electrodes of highly conductive materials like gold or silver chloride are normally employed. Actually the discovery of electrical wave pattern from the brain has taken place only hundred years back and this led to the application process of Brain computer Interface. EEG is a special type of communication media between men and machines which is performed by employing the influence of electronic signals on current sources in human brain. The system of communication by means of electronic signals is termed as Brain Computer Interface. This is

Teaching children with dyslexia Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Teaching children with dyslexia - Essay Example Owing to the difficulty in diagnosis of the condition, some educators may be essentially baffled by the behavior of a child whose poor performance is mistakenly seen to originate from carelessness (Subramaniam, Mallan, & Mat, 2013). Teachers may punish these students or enroll them in unnecessary remedial lessons, which may make them feel very much underrated, or overburdened in a learning facility. Whereas it may be difficult to differentiate between children who are careless in the classroom and those with dyslexia, it is the responsibility of an effective teacher to create an atmosphere that is favorable for learning by all the pupils. This would enhance early diagnoses for dyslexia and facilitate the implementation of specialized care to cater for the unique educational needs of such students. Â  Owing to the difficulty in diagnosis of the condition, some educators may be essentially baffled by the behavior of a child whose poor performance is mistakenly seen to originate from c arelessness (Subramaniam, Mallan, & Mat, 2013). Teachers may punish these students or enroll them in unnecessary remedial lessons, which may make them feel very much underrated, or overburdened in a learning facility. Whereas it may be difficult to differentiate between children who are careless in the classroom and those with dyslexia, it is the responsibility of an effective teacher to create an atmosphere that is favorable for learning by all the pupils. This would enhance early diagnoses for dyslexia and facilitate the implementation of specialized care to cater for the unique educational needs of such students. Â   Husni and Jamaludin (2009) argue that it behaves a class teacher to comprehend the learning challenges that a dyslexic student may experience within the learning environment. With this awareness, teachers would avoid chances of misconstruing the behavior of a child, which may impair their normal learning processes. In a cordial environment full of motivation, a dysl exic student will develop the perception of self-reliance, which basically yields educational success (Amstrong, 2012). Teaching a dyslexic child requires the knowledge that an impaired auditory short term memory, which results from the disease can result in the student having a poorer capacity to retain the teacher’s input for long.’s input for long. In light of this, an effective teacher should adopt simpler, repetitive teaching strategies when issuing instructions to a class of dyslexic children in order to secure their better understanding of the lessons. Subramaniam, Mallan and Mat (2013) have pointed out that auditory short term memory impairment in a child can impede the victim’s ability to remember the teacher’s input of spoken words, arrangement of sounds in order, and the adequate spelling of the letters. In most cases, children with these learning problems cannot recall even simple instructions. Regardless of the seriousness of the impacts of the impairment, proper teaching interventions in the class have proven advantageous to the victims. Managing the short-term memory Managing the short-term memory is vital to the achievement of better outcomes in the classroom. Teaching a dyslexic child requires the development of the lesson outline, and ending each lesson with a scorecard of the themes covered. By doing so, vital information related to learning will be retained in the child’s memory for longer (Amstrong, 2012). This can also be essential when setting the homework. Teachers should ensure that the dyslexic child properly notes down what is required. Instructors should also ensure that the child carries home the right writing materials. Although a majority of such would find it difficult to remember telephone contacts of their friends, it is important for teachers to have them note down a few contacts on the homework book to facilitate consultation when they face any difficulty remembering the recommended work (Amstrong, 2012). Teachers should also ensure that they use written form of communication for learning activities, since verbal communication would be forgotten easily. A teacher for a dyslexic child should monitor the performance and behavior of the child on a daily

Discussions Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Discussions - Assignment Example The Enron fraud was revealed to the public in October 2001 and this ended up in the bankruptcy of the organization. While analyzing the Enron accounting impropriety, it appears that the company executives exploited accounting limitations with intend to create a false view of the cash flows and to prepare a misleading balance sheet. This inflated the profits. Fair accounting practices and proper annual reporting might have prevented the Enron scandal. Effect of Accounting Impropriety Although improper or illegal accounting practices may assist a firm to gain short term financial benefits, such practices can have dreadful consequences on the company in the long term. Undoubtedly, accounting malpractices will reduce stakeholder confidence in management and hence investors would be reluctant to invest in the company. This situation may adversely affect the firm’s overall financial performance. Management professionals opine that active stakeholder engagement in business is inevita ble to improve financial performance. Hence, in order to minimize the resulting impact of accounting impropriety on the business, making timely changes to the top management team and to publish proper annual reports is essential. ... Hence, it can be stated that bookkeeping constitutes the basic part or starting point of the accounting process. As Banerjee (2010) states, the scope of bookkeeping is restricted to systematic and repetitive recording of business transactions in ledger accounts through journal. In contrast, the accounting process involves the preparation of Trial Balance, Profit & Loss A/c, Income Statement, and Balance Sheet using accepted accounting principles. While bookkeeping is only a clerical job, accounting is an analytical job (p.4). Accounting Equation Accounting equation also referred to as balance sheet equation, reflects the relationship between assets, liabilities, and owner’s equity of a business. This equation is linked to the concept that total debits equal total credits. The accounting equation can be expressed as Assets = Liabilities + Capital. As accounting equation is fundamental to the double entry bookkeeping system, it can greatly support the work of professional accoun tants. More precisely, this equation is the basic idea behind the preparation of balance sheet. A good understanding of this equation can assist stakeholders, particularly investors to form potential business decisions. While making business decisions, it is important to give specific focus to liabilities rather than assets. Discussion 3 SOX and Accounting Professionals The Sarbanes-Oxley Act (SOX) has been recently introduced in the United States to promote fair reporting of asset valuation. The SOX framework necessitates proper financial accounting disclosure and therefore organizations are required to produce complete information of assets, depreciation, values, and status in any accounting period (Omnix Asset Management,

How Might Deprivation Lead to Crime Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

How Might Deprivation Lead to Crime - Essay Example In these models, deprivation leads to crime by placing low-income individuals who have low returns from market activity in proximity to high-income individuals who have things that are worth taking. A formal model of deprivation and property crime in which individuals choose between legitimate and criminal activity can be found in Chiu and Madden (1998, p123-141). Most empirical tests of the economic theory of crime have been concerned with the deterrent effects of the criminal justice system in particular by how increased police activity and imprisonment rates reduce crime, and whether this reduction is due to prevention or incapacitation (Tierney 1996). In the past several studies have considered the effect on crime of deprivation, albeit indirectly through the effect of low earnings on criminal activity (Roger 2002). In contrast to the economics of crime literature, which focuses on the deterrent effects of the formal criminal justice system, social disorganization theory considers factors that diminish the effectiveness of informal social controls. Shaw and McKay (1942) identified poverty, ethnic heterogeneity, and residential mobility as the three factors that weaken networks of social control and undermine the ability and willingness of communities to exercise informal control over their members. Sampson (1987) has added family stability to this list. For social disorganization theory, deprivation causes crime indirectly by being associated with poverty. Several of the classic theories of crime, including Marxist, strain, and utilitarian rely heavily on economic factors such as poverty and unemployment to account for variations in crime rates (Shihadeh & Ousey 1998). Researchers since the nineteenth century have suggested a positive association between poverty and crime in urban areas (Tierney 1996). This may be due to the fact that the relationship between poverty and crime is contingent upon the specific crime category under consideration (Patterson 1991). In Merton's (1938, p672-682) strain theory, individuals low in the social structure are perturbed by their failure to attain the material attributes of success, and this failure is more substantial when they are confronted by the success of those around them. Unsuccessful individuals become alienated from society and commit the crime in response. Individual alienation can arise from income deprivation or from belonging to a racial minority. The predictions of strain and social disorganization theories have been subject to extensive but questionable empirical testing in the sociological literature. The influential study of Blau and Blau (1982, p114-129) found a strong relationship between measured income deprivation and homicide rates in large metropolitan areas in 1970. Such theories rely on the troubling assumption that macro-level relationships reflect the sum of a series of individual-level social-psychological processes. Blau and Blau's (1982, p114-129) prominently stated that highly stratified environments generate feelings of resentment and frustration in individuals.  

The Happiest Days of Your Life Essay Example for Free

The Happiest Days of Your Life Essay Normally you would think, that parents would have the best interest and intensions for their children. And parents, who are very ambitious on behalf of their children, are often a good prerequisite for the kids to get really far in a prestigious world. But at the same time any parent must also be careful, that the excessive pressure of expectations and so early defined objectives do not take away the play of childhood and at a later stage the child’s wish to formulate own goals of life. If your parent’s devote to invest themselves, their time and savings to pursue the ambition they carry on behalf of their child – which more often than not are projections of own lost ambitions – it is a very big burden for any child to carry. A 3rd person limited omniscient narrator tells Penelope Lively’s short story, from Charles point of view. But the narrator is partly an omniscient narrator, because we are very familiar with Charles emotions. Normally would a non-omniscient objective 3rd person narrator never know that Charles feels like the floor under him is shaking and the walls beside him is moving (p. 65 l. 7-9). Most of the story takes place on Preparatory School St. Edwards, and of course back and forth in the car. We are not told, when the story exactly is taking place. So it could have happened yesterday or many years ago. The environment in the story seems to be the upper class of society, which is clearly seen in this quote from the text; â€Å"She worked over the headmaster’s wife from shoes to hairstyle, pricing and assessing. Shoes old but expensive Russel and Bromley.Good skirt. Blouse could be Marks and Sparks not sure. Real pearls. Super Victorian ring.† (p. 63 l. 9-13). A normal middle-class woman could not name a price and a brand on what a random woman is wearing from head to toe. It shows us, that she properly belongs to the upper class herself. The lack of communication between Charles and his parents contribute to his parent’s lack of knowledge to know how Charles feels. And the lacks of knowledge result in they don’t recognize or understand that Charles actually doesn’t want to go to the school. But the problem is Charles parents are so busy trying to achieve all these things for their son, which they might not have had the opportunity to get, when they were at his age. There is nothing wrong with being ambitious for your children, but while the parents are very busy being just that, the consequences are that Charles disappears more and more in the background. They hear only what they would like to hear they close their eyes to reality. Charlie is around 6-13 years, since he is attending Preparatory School in the UK. You can feel that he’s really nervous. You certainly feel it when he sits in the car. He won’t eat the chocolate or read his comics. He is completely silent throughout visiting the school and just keeps on following the adult around the school halls, without saying a single word. I find the strongest signal on how Charles feels about starting at the school, when an echo of a boys voice saying he will mash him next term, running through his head. Another proof or signal that he’s hesitant is, when you see that he doesn’t respond or take actions when his mother asks; Would you like to go there, Charles? . Charles does not Anwar His face is haggard with anticipation, ` Next year, well mash you .. (p. 65 l 23-28). This excerpt from the text shows that although Charles is afraid of having to go to this school, then he’s to reluctant to say it. And yet another example on how Charles feelings is known; â€Å"A bell goes somewhere beyond doors and down corridors, and suddenly the children are all gone, clattering away and leaving him there with the heaving floor and the walls that shift and swing.† (p. 65 l. 7-9) He feels like the fear is getting out of hand. He does not thrive. He shuts everything out, but inside he is about to burst. His physical condition is there, but his mental state is not there. His mental state flees to a dreamlike state. And the dream-like state creates a kind of protection for him. Because he knows he can’t say it to anyone and certainly not to his parents. For no one is listening and if you are pressed enough, then these sorts of situations and circumstances will arise. The story reflects the difficulties of growing up. I don’t think the parents are even near to chose the right school for Charles. If it was the right school, then he wouldn’t be feeling as he does. You never know how the situation will turn out – he might get some good friends or he might go through hell and being bullied by the other boys all the time. That’s at least what he thinks; â€Å"The child does not answer. He looks straight ahead of him, at the road coiling beneath the bonnet of the car. His face is haggard with anticipation.  ´Next term, we’ll mash you†¦Ã‚ ´Ã¢â‚¬ . (p. 65 l 23-28). I think the title of the story is meant in an ironic way. I believe that the reason it’s called â€Å"The happiest days of your life† and not â€Å"The happiest days of my life† is because you always hear it from the parent’s perspective. They think the school is amazing and Charles is going to be so happy to go there. They never let Charles decide for himself. And I think the title of the story is based on the way his parents treats him.

Physiology Of Sleep

Physiology Of Sleep Physiology Of Sleep Introduction Sleep is a state of reversible unconsciousness in which the brain is low responsive to external stimuli. We are functionally blind during sleep with no response to visual stimuli and a decreased threshold of response to auditory stimuli. Babies have been exposed to sound of up to 100 dB, which is above the legal limit for ear protection for employees, without waking up. In adults, the action is selective demonstrating continuing cortical function. For example, a sleeping mother is woken by her crying baby but not by other louder noises. Definition of sleep and sleeping Phases with specific EEG patterns and physiological changes. Natural sleep is separated into two distinctive states: non rapid eye movement (N.R.E.M) and rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. NREM sleep is then further seperated into 4 stages where stage 1 is the lightest and stage 4 the deepest level of sleep. REM sleep is divided into phasic and tonic phases. The two distinctive states follow a regular pattern called a sleep cycle which, in an adult, lasts about 1 and half hours and comprises a period of N.R.E.M sleep followed by REM sleep. The cycles may be separated by a period of wakefulness and are repeated 3–6 times each night and are typically displayed as an hypnogram (Fig. 1). The majority of deep (stage 4) NREM sleep occurs in the first and second cycles. As the night progresses, the proportion of REM sleep in a cycle increases and the NREM element is of lighter stage 2 sleep. Age has a major effect on the duration of sleep and the ratio of NREM/REM sleep. Neonates sleep 16–18 h. It is widely distributed throughout the day with REM sleep accounting for 50% of total sleep time (TST). This may be even greater in premature babies. By the age of 24 months, children should sleep 10 h per day, mainly at night with one or two naps during the daytime and REM sleep has declined to 20–25% of TST. Adults normally sleep 6–8 h per day with 15–20% REM sleep. With increasing age, TST changes little although sleep is more fragmented with more frequent and longer awakenings (decreased sleep efficiency) with less REM sleep and more light NREM sleep. Night-time sleep may be decreased if naps are taken during the day. Functions of sleep The functions of sleep are still poorly understood. However, the observation that sleep (or, at  least, an activity–inactivity cycle) is present in all species and has been preserved throughout evolution and that sleep deprivation leads to a drastic deterioration in cognitive  function and eventually to mental and physical morbidity proves its importance. It has been suggested that sleep might conserve energy by reducing core temperature slightly and lowering metabolic rate by 10% compared with quiet wakefulness. Sleep would prevent perpetual activity as a response to environmental stimuli leading to excessive energy consumption. However, sleep is a state of starvation and there is no evidence that sleep is important for tissue repair. Sleep has been implicated as an important factor in storage of long-term memory. Facts learned during the day are usually better remembered the next morning whereas facts learned shortly before going to sleep are often poorly recalled. Electrophysiological features of sleep The stages of sleep are characterised by typical patterns of electroencephalogram (EEG), electro-myogram (EMG) and electro oculogram (EOG) activity Wakefulness with open eyes is characterised by an EEG with dominant low amplitude, high frequency beta activity of  16–25 Hz. Muscle tone is normally high with high to moderate EMG activity. Stage 1 Sleep is usually initiated by a transition from wakefulness to a state of drowsiness with closed eyes and a shift from EEG beta activity to alpha activity of 8–12 Hz passing to Stage 1  NREM sleep with a mixed frequency EEG-pattern with low amplitude theta waves of 3–7 Hz accompanied by slow rolling eye movements. Involuntary muscle clonus occurs frequently,  resulting in jerky movement of the whole body (hypnic jerks) and EMG activity is moderate-to-low. This stage lasts typically only 5–10 min, during which time minor auditory stimuli will cause arousal. Stage 2 Stage 2 is characterised by short bursts of high frequency activity (12–15 Hz – sleep spindles) and K-complexes (large amplitude biphasic waves). Bodily movements continue and  the EMG activity is low-to-moderate. This stage is generally short (10–20 min) in the first 1–2 cycles but predominates in later cycles. It is the most abundant sleep stage in adults  accounting for up to 50% of TST. Stages 3 and 4 Deep NREM sleep stages 3 and 4, sometimes combined as slow wave sleep (SWS) are characterized by high amplitude low frequency delta waves (> 75 µV and 0.5–2 Hz) with stage  3 having between 20–50% and stage 4 more than 50% delta activity. EMG activity is low and eye movements are rare. Arousal through auditory stimuli from this stage of sleep is  difficult and, if awakened, the individual is often disorientated and slow to react. Return to sleep is easy and short arousals (< 30 sec) are rarely remembered. REM sleep NREM sleep is followed by REM sleep, the proportion increasing with each cycle. REM sleep is characterised by a fast mixed frequency low voltage EEG with saw-tooth waves and  rapid eye movements on the EOG. During the tonic phases of REM sleep, there is marked reduction of muscle tone and EMGactivity in skeletal muscles. The tonic phases of REM sleep are interrupted by short episodes of phasic REM sleep with increased EMG activity and limb twitches. The atonia of REM sleep affects all skeletal muscles, except the diaphragm and the upper airway muscles, and is associated with hyperpolarisation of the ÃŽ ±-motor neurones. The purpose of this may be to prevent the acting out of dreams. About 10% of the population have experienced sleep paralysis (i.e. wakening from sleep and finding that the atonia has  persisted into wakefulness). It can be frightening but is entirely harmless. Natural wakening usually occurs from REM sleep. Subjects woken from REM sleep are much more likely to rec all dream content than those awakened from NREM sleep. NREM dreams are generally vague and formless in contrast to REM dreams. Physiological changes during sleep Respiratory system During NREM sleep, there is a decrease in respiratory drive and a reduction in the muscle tone of the upper airway leading to a 25% decrease in minute volume and alveolar ventilation and a doubling of airway resistance accompanied by a small (0.5 kPa) increase in  PaCO2 and decrease in PaO2. Hypercarbic and hypoxic ventilator drives are reduced compared with wakefulness. The breathing pattern is regular except at the transition from wakefulness into sleep when brief central apnoeas are common. During REM sleep there is a further decrease in hypercarbic and, particularly, hypoxic ventilatory drives. The breathing pattern is irregular especially during phasic REM sleep. The loss of skeletal muscle tone in REM sleep affects the intercostal and other muscles which stabilise the chest wall during inspiration. In infants, this may be seen as paradoxical movement of the rib cage and abdomen. In adults, there may be maldistribution of ventilation and impaired ventilation–perfusion matching with consequent arterial hypoxaemia. In normal subjects, this is unimportant but it may be very important in patients with chronic lung disease or abnormalities of the thoracic (e.g. kyphoscoliosis). The great majority of patients with impaired respiratory function will be at their worst during REM sleep. Cardiovascular system Blood pressure decreases during NREM and tonic REM sleep but may increase above waking values during phasic REM sleep. Cardiac output is generally decreased during all sleep  phases. Systemic vascular resistance (SVR) and the heart rate are both reduced during NREM and tonic REM sleep and increased during phasic REM sleep. Central nervous system Cerebral blood flow (CBF) increases by 50–100% above the level of resting wakefulness during tonic REM sleep and is even greater during phasic REM sleep. Cerebral metabolic rate, oxygen consumption and neuronal discharge rate are reduced during NREM sleep but increased above resting values during REM sleep. The autonomic nervous system shows a general decrease in sympathetic tone and an increase in parasympathetic tone,  except in phasic REM sleep. Renal system The glomerular filtration speed and filtration fraction are reduced and ADH secretion is increased resulting in a less volume concentrated urine. Endocrine system The secretion of several hormones is directly linked to the sleep/wake cycle. Melatonin is released from the pineal gland under the control of the supra-chiasmatic nuclei (SCN) in a 4–5h pulse, usually beginning at the onset of darkness (~9 pm). The pulse is inhibited or delayed by exposure to bright light in the evening. It is best regarded as being permissive of sleep (‘opening the gate to sleep’) rather than as an hypnotic, as it is possible to maintain wakefulness during this period. Growth hormone is mostly secreted during the first episode of SWS, particularly  during puberty. Prolactin concentrations also increase shortly after sleep onset and decrease with wakefulness. Sleep phase delay delays secretion of both of these hormones. The secretion of cortisol decreases with the onset of sleep and reaches a trough in the early hours of the morning and a peak just after waking. Temperature control In contrast to anaesthesia, thermoregulation is maintained during sleep. However, the shivering threshold is decreased and body core temperature decreases by about 0.5 °C in humans and 2 °C  in hibernating mammals. Body temperature is linked to the circadian rhythm and reaches its nadir at about 3 am. Thermoregulation is quite good in human infants compared with  other species. Control of sleep Sleep follows a circadian (~1 day) cycle, the periodicity of which is regulated by an independent genetically determined ‘intrinsic clock’ which is entrained to a 24 h cycle by external cues (Zeitgebers) such as light, darkness, clock time, working patterns and meal times. When a human being is deprived of all external time clues and is exposed to constant levels of illumination (‘free running’), the wake/sleep cycle typically lengthens to about 24.5 h. Subjects who are born blind without any appreciation of light generally free run while those blinded in later lifeor who retain some perception of light remain entrained. All living organisms, including plants and fungi, have been found to have clock genes and to show an inactivity/activity cycle. In mammals, control of the intrinsic clock is located in the SCN on either side of the third ventricle, just above the optical chiasm. In animal experiments, its destruction leads to a change from the normal sleep cycle into several shorter sleep/activity periods during the day. As noted above, melatonin secretion is  prompted by the SCN just before the usual time of sleep onset. A mismatch of this pattern with sleeping time, as occurs in shift workers and after trans-meridian flights, leads to sleep disturbance (‘jet lag’) as the subject is trying to sleep during their circadian day. Light therapy can be helpful in re-setting the circadian clock and the interested reader is referred to the bibliography. The propensity to fall asleep varies throughout the day and depends upon both circadian factors (process C) and time since the last sleep period (process S). The longer the time since the  last sleep period, the greater will be process S. However, its propensity will be modulated by process C. The circadian pressure to sleep is greatest at ~2 am with a secondary peak at ~2 pm. It is least at ~6 am and ~6 pm. If a subject elects to stay awake throughout the night, they will feel most sleepy in the small hours of the morning but will get a ‘second wind’ as morning approaches and the circadian pressure to sleep declines. If wakefulness is maintained, a second period of sleepiness and relative alertness will follow in early afternoon and early evening, respectively. Some of the 8-h sleep debt will be recovered that night but process C will ensure that awakening will occur at or shortly after the normal waking time. Sleep is normally an actively initiated and not a passive process. Unless a subject is sleep deprived, successful initiation of sleep depends both upon the phase of the circadian clock and  external factors (recumbent position, darkness, reducing sensory input). Over the years, considerable effort has been focused on a search for: (i) a ‘sleep centre’, a nucleus or region in the brain where stimulation or ablation would lead to sleep; and (ii) a hormone or transmitter which would reliably induce sleep. Neither have been found because the mechanisms resulting in sleep are complex and diffuse. During wakefulness, the CNS is dominated by activity of the ascending reticular activating system (RAS) in the brain stem. This formation receives sensory input from all peripheral sensors and projects to the thalamus and the cortex. Its main neurotransmitters are acetylcholine, noradrenaline, dopamine and histamine which explains the sedative effect of antagonists to these  substances. A decrease in its activity permits sleep to be initiated by suppressing incoming external stimuli. The induction of SWS is associated with the secretion of ÃŽ ³-aminobutyric acid (GABA) from basal forebrain neurones. Therefore, it is not surprising that benzodiazepines and barbiturates, which act through stimulation of GABA receptors in the CNS, induce sleep or anaesthesia. Cholinergic mechanisms initiate REM sleep through stimulation of pontine neurones in the  lateral portion of the pontine tegmentum and the nucleus reticularis pontis oralis. In animal experiments, injection of carbachol (acetylcholine agonist) induces instantaneous REM sleep. Recently, orexins (hypocretin) have been isolated in the hypothalamus and appear to be important in the control of REM sleep and appetite. CSF concentrations of orexins have been found to be very low in patients with narcolepsy. Influence of surgery and anaesthesia on sleep Anaesthesia and surgery can have a profound effect upon sleep. On the first night after surgery, sleep architecture is severely disrupted with little or no SWS and REM sleep. The  light Stage 2 sleep is fragmented with frequent awakenings. The degree of disruption appears to be related to the severity of the surgical insult. The mechanism is unclear but it is probably due to a combination of the surgical stress and the effects of opioid analgesics. Recovery of lost SWS and REM sleep occurs on postoperative nights 2–5, being later after major surgery. This coincides with the nadir of postoperative pulmonary function and several  studies have demonstrated marked hypoxaemia associated with the rebound of REM sleep. It was a logical step to attribute postoperative myocardial ischaemia, myocardial infarction, pulmonary embolism and cerebral disorder (delirium and cognitive impairment) to nocturnal hypoxaemia. However, a number of studies have failed to confirm these presumed associations,  although this does not exclude the possibility that the hypoxaemia may be important in some individuals. Key references Ambrosini MV, Giuditta B. Learning and sleep: the sequential hypothesis. Sleep Med Rev2001;5: 477–90 Dijk DJ, Lockley SW. Functional genomics of sleep and circadian rhythm: integration of human sleep-wake regulation and circadian rhythmicity.J Appl Physiol 2002;92: 852–62 Douglas N.Clinician’s Guide to Sleep Medicine. Edinburgh:Arnold, 2002   Ebrahim IO et al. The hypocretin/orexin system. J R Soc Med 2002;95: 227–30 Kryger MH, Roth T, Dement WC. (eds) Principles and Practice of Sleep Medicine, 3rd edn. Philadelphia: 2000. Nicolau MC et al.Why we sleep: the evolutionary pathway to the mammalian sleep pattern.Prog Neurobiol2000;62: 379–406 Saper CB, Chou TC, Scammell TE.The sleep switch: hypothalamic control of sleep and wakefulness.Trends Neurosci2001;24: 726–31 Shneerson JM.Handbook of Sleep Medicine. Oxford: Blackwell, 2000 Williams JM, Hanning CD. Obstructive sleep apnoea,BJA CEPD Rev2003; 3: 75–78

History of Anabolic Steroids Misuse and Drug Testing

History of Anabolic Steroids Misuse and Drug Testing Introduction: History of drug abuse Drug abuse in sport is not a recent issue. In Ancient Greece, the Olympic athletes used special diets (herbs,mushrooms and sesame seeds) to improve their physical performance. The gladiators in the Roman times, consumed stimulants to reduce fatigue.(1,2) South American Indians used coca leaves to enhance stamina.(2) During the nineteenth century, drug abuse became a great problem. Caffeine, strychnine, alcohol, cocaine, opium, and oxygen were used by swimmers, runners and cyclists to increase performance.(1,2) In 1896, the cyclist Arthur Linton was the first reported fatality case in sport from strychnine intake which was administered by his coach.(1) Later on, in 1904, the runner Thomas Hicks, was near to death in Olympic Marathon in St Louis USA, from use of strychnine and brandy.(1) During the Second World War, amphetamine consumption started by the troops to reduce their fatigue. In 1940s and 1950s, amphetamines substitute other drugs in its use in sport.( became the choice over other drugs). (1) Reported deaths from amphetamine abuse was in 1964, the Danish cyclist knut Jensen at Rome Olympics died on the opening day of the games. In 1967, the British cyclist Tommy Simpson, at Tour de France, died from amphetamine abuse. After Simpson’s death, the International Olympic Committee took an action and the first list of banned substances was published in 1968.(1,3) In 1950s, a new class was misused by athletes and weightlifters to increase muscle size and strength and this class named anabolic steroids;(1) in 1964, there was suspect for use of anabolic steroid in Summer Olympics in Tokyo due to the increase in muscle mass of the athletes.(3) Top scandals in drug abuse 1. East German athletes(4,5,6) From 1972 to 1988, the East German which was a country of 17 million populations, won 20 to 40 gold medals in 4 years and became a country competing the United States and Soviet Union. Manfred Ewald who was the head of Olympic sport committee in East Germany, and Dr. Manfred Hoeppner who was the sports doctor at that time, were responsible about giving the athletes banned substances intentionally without their knowledge. This results in severe complications in the athlete’s health such as liver dysfunction, cancer, hormonal changes and infertility. From 1966 and on, many doctors and coaches in East German follow a plan which was sponsored by the government known as â€Å"systematic and overall doping in competitive sports†. After the collapse of East German and Berlin Wall fall in 1989, many athletes confessed about the pills and injections that were given to them. Kornelia Ender, Barbara Krause and Carola Nitschke were three of the thousands of East German athletes who had provided with steroids. Heidi Kreiger was also one of the athletes that was provided with steroids heavily and this was the main reason that force her to make sex-alteration operation. 2. Pan American Games in 1983 IOC included testosterone in the banned list in 1983 and it was the first endogenous substance to be tested at that time. The test was based on measuring the testosterone to epitestosterone (T/E) ratio. (1) The first drug testing for steroids was at the Pan America Games in Caracas and Venezuela in 1983. Around 15 athletes were caught at these games. Jeff Michaels, the American weightlifter, and Guy Greavette, the Canadian weightlifter, were tested positive for steroids. They returned their medals and being suspended for 2 years. (5,7) Many athletes of the U.S track-and-field team withdrew from the game rather than being captured. (7) 3. Ben Johnson’s scandal In 1988, the Canadian Ben Johnson was stripped of his gold medal at 100 meters after he has been tested positive for the anabolic steroid stanozolol at Seoul Olympics. Johnson has been banned from competition for 2 years.(7) 4. Michelle Smith: the Irish swimmer(5,7) In 1998, the Olympic champion swimmer Michelle Smith was tested positive for banned substance at her home through out-of-competition testing. The test was positive for alcohol in an amount that would be fatal if taken by an athlete. So FINA, the international governing body for swimming, concluded that the urine sample was treated with alcohol as a masking agent and Smith has been suspended for four years. 5. Chinese swim team(5,7) The Chinese national swim team has been used anabolic steroids, erythropoietin and human growth hormone in the last 15 years. In 1992 Barcelona Olympics and 1994 world championships, china won a high number of gold medals. In world swimming championships, a world records was set by women swimmers, and this causes suspect that they were using drugs. In 1994 at Asian Games, eleven athletes were caught as drug abusers for dihydrotestosterone. Since 1990,over 40 Chinese swimmers were tested positive for abused drugs and at that time china reached the peak for drug abuse over the swimming countries. 6. Tour de France(5) Doping by cyclists arises since 1967 after Simpson death at Tour de France due to amphetamine misuse. Drug abuse by cyclists continues and in summer 1998, the Festina cycling team was pushed out from the competition at Tour de France after the French Officials found EPO in their masseur’s car. After investigations, six of Festina’s nine riders confessed that they had taken abused drugs. Later on, the leader also has failed drug tests for anabolic steroids. Also in 2002, Stefano Garzelli, the leader of the Vini Caldirola team, has failed drug test for probenecid, a diuretic which is used as a masking agent. Also in the same year at Tour de France, the Spanish cyclist Igor Gonzalez de Galdeano, was tested positive for anti-asthmatic drug. In January 2004, two cyclists in the Cofidis team, which is one of the top teams in france, were caught as drug abusers for EPO and amphetamines. 7. Steroids in baseball (5) In 2002, a report was published by the Sports Illustrated and the National League MVP Ken Caminiti stated that â€Å"at least half the guys are using steroids.† In 2003, the Major League Baseball revealed that around 7% of 1438 tests on all players were positive for steroids. 8. Doping in skiing(5) Drug abuse in cross-country skiing has been spread for years especially with EPO. In 2001 world championships in Finland, six finish skiers have failed drug test for HES which is a plasma volume expander. Three skiers at the Salt Lake Games were tested positive for the drug Darbepoetin which is a synthetic compound of the natural hormone EPO. Two of these athletes Olga Danilova and Larissa Lazutina were Russian medalists but later on, they were stripped of their medals and the gold medal was awarded to the Canadian Beckie Scott who ended third. 9. BALCO scandal BALCO is Bay Area Laboratory Cooperative which is a company that provides nutritional supplements. Victor Conte built BALCO in 1984 and he followed a system for analyzing urine and blood in order to prescribe supplements that replace vitamin and mineral deficiencies. Tetrahydrogestrinone is one of banned substances that was used by BALCO and was undetected by drug testing. THG or â€Å"The Clear† is an anabolic steroid that can reduce fatigue during training and can increase the muscle mass. In 2003, the USADA, United States Anti-Doping Agency, developed a test for THG after receiving a syringe from anonymous (US track coach Trever Graham) containing THG and claiming that most athletes are using this drug. Don Catlin, succeeded in developing the test and he tested the urine samples that were taken from athletes at the US championships and numerous tests came back positive for THG(8,9). Athletes that were involved in BALCO scandal were Kelli White, Marion Jones, C.J.Hunter, Tim Montgomery, baseball star Barry bonds, and NFL’s Bill Romanowski, and Dwain Chambers. In 2004, Dwain Chambers who was the European 100m championship at that time was banned from competition for 2 years. 100m and 200m Champion kelli white was banned for 2 years as well. USADA convicted BALCO, for the distribution of THG. In 2005, Victor Conte was jailed for four months. Greg Anderson (Barry Bond’s trainer) was jailed for three months.(9,10,11,12) 10. Ma’s runners Ma Junren was the coach for the world female championships runners(13). In 1993, Ma’s Chinese female runners won three gold medals at the World Track and Field championships in Stuttgart and also in 1997 they set world records. From that time there was suspicion that the runners were using banned substances(13,15). A doping scandal for Ma’s runners arose before the 2000 summer Sydney Olympic(14,15). Top runners like Liquing Song and Lili Yin had failed drug test for testosterone during an out-of competition testing in 2000 and the Ma’s Chinese runners were evicted from the Olympic team(13,15). History of drug testing: Doping was also done for race horses not and only for humans. The first drug test was done for alkaloids on the saliva of horses in 1910 by a Russian Chemist in Vienna.(1,2) Drug testing on human urine started in 1950s after the wide spread abuse of amphetamines. (7) After British Tommy Simpson death from amphetamine abuse at Tour de France in 1967, IOC established the Medical Commission and a list of banned substances was established by the IOC. Professor Beckett was a member in the Medical Commission at that time and he developed methods for detection of stimulants ,i.e. drugs that were used† in competition†. (3,7) Methods of Beckett for drug testing were first used in 1968 at Mexico City Olympic competition and these tests were for non-steroidal drugs (narcotic analgesics and stimulants) and there was no tests for anabolic steroids.(7)(3). The first formal drug testing programmes for narcotics and stimulants was in 1972 at Munich Olympics. These tests were done at the competition periods. The abuse of Anabolic steroids became prevalent in 1970s and its use was banned in 1974 by the IOC and added to the list in 1975(1) p313. The first formal steroid testing program occurred in 1976 at Montreal Olympics using radioimmunoassay screening for detection its presence and GCMS for confirmation. (7,19) In and out of competition testing: At first testing programmes were based on tests during the competition periods. But later on it was recognized that these tests were of limited value to catch up the cheats. Athletes learn how to defeat the testing programmes by calculating the clearance time of the drug in the body so they could avoid its use before the competition periods. Form here came the â€Å"out -of -competition† testing programmes to catch the cheats for drug abuse. â€Å"Out of competition testing† started in late 1970s. The first out of competition testing was conducted in 1977 by Norway and in UK, it started in early 1980s. However, the â€Å"out- of -competition† testing did not expand globally until the establishment of WADA in 2000. WADA established out-of-competition testing programmes and it was followed globally from that time.(1) p314-315 Classification of Abused Drugs Doping classes and methods examples Anabolic steroids Testosterone, nandrolone (discussed later Blood Doping blood transfusion(discussed later) Stimulants Amphetamine, ephedrine, cocaine, caffeine Narcotics Morphine, Methadone, Codeine Peptide and glycoprotein hormones Human growth hormone, corticotrophin, human chorionic gonadotrophin, erythro poietin Diuretics and masking agents Acetazolamide, Furesamide, Probencid Beta- blockers Atenolol, Propanolol, Metoprolol Atenolol, Propanolol, Metoprolol Anabolic steroids (discussed later) Blood Dopping (Blood Transfusions) ( discussed later) Central Nervous System Stimulants Athletes often use stimulants to enhance alertness and reduce fatigue i.e. increase physical and mental performance.1p41. These are more used on the day of competition to reduce the sensitivity to pain of athletes if they got injured; however, nowadays they are used during training to increase training time. Amphetamines Amphetamine is a synthetic compound (1920), it was developed as an appetite suppressant and for treatment of narcolepsy, to fight fatigue and to enhance alertness, but later it was withdrawn from clinical use due to the development of tolerance. P42 Methamphetamine is very addictive stimulant, related to amphetamine with more longer lasting and toxic effects on the CNS. Mechanism of action: These are indirectly acting sympathomimetic amine. They enter neurons and act presynaptically to release stores of noradrenaline, and dopamine from nerve endings; they also block noradrenaline and dopamine transporter reuptake and inhibit MAO. They include Dexamphetamine, Methamphetamine, Phenmetrazine, and methylphenidate. Routes of administration: Amphetamine can be administered orally, nasally, and intravenously. Amphetamine itself is not very effective if smoked. Methamphetamine is smokable form and it is becoming increasingly popular as a drug of abuse. Effects of Amphetamines in Sport: Athletes often use amphetamine to reduce fatigue, increase alertness and concentration, increase euphoria and to tolerate painful injuries.p42. p72 Side Effects: The most important side effect is heart stroke.p72. Amphetamines cause peripheral vasoconstriction and thus increase blood pressure. The body overheats and cannot regain its temperature resulting in dehydration.1.p42 The second side effect is that the euphoric action may affect the awareness of athletes and thus they fall in misjudgements. Cases of amphetamine abuse: Amphetamine use was spread around the time of the Second World War, to decrease fatigue of the troops. Later, its use was spread among athletes in 1940s and 1950s. 1.p30. its use atarted to be controlled under the UK Misuse of Drugs Act 1971. In 1960, the cyclist, Knud Jenson, died due to amphetamine abuse in the intense summer heat of Rome Olympics.1p72-30 In 1967 Tour de France, the British cyclist, Tommy Simpson, died as a result of amphetamine abuse while climbing the infamous Mont Ventoux. His death was due to cardiac arrest.1p72 In 1997,American Footballers, (Clarkson and Thompson), withdrew from play due to amphetamine abuse which was taken to tolerate injuries.1p72 Effect on behaviour Mandell (1979), Golding(1981) In 2002, the British skier Alain Baxter, had lost his Olympic bronze medal and he was banned from skiing from March until June, due to positive test of Methamphetamine( l-form which is found in OTC vicks inhaler. IOC test do not distinguish between l- and d- form. D-form is used as performance –enhancing drug. Later on, Baxter’s name was cleared as being a drug cheater and it was approved that the drug was l- form.(16,17,18) Ecstasy It is a synthetic amphetamine derivative. It was synthesized in 1914 as an appetite suppressant. It has stimulant amphetamine like properties, now commonly used in dance clubs but it may be misused by athletes. In UK, it was classified as an illegal substance since 1977, and in USA its use was under control since 1985. Since 1990, there were no reports for ecstasy misuse by athletes.p73 Ephedrine and related compounds Ephedrine is a natural product occurring in the plant genus Ephedra. Phyenylpropanolamine and pseudoephedrine are synthetics. These are used to treat cold symptoms as bronchodilators.1.p73.p42. Mechanism of action It has sympathomimetic action. These deplete noradrenalin from neuronal storage sites resulting in indirect effect on sympathetic neurons and CNS.1.p73 Routes of administration Ephedrine and phenylpropanolamine are found in cold medications (in UK and USA) which are taken orally. Phenylpropanolamine is now prohibited by US authorities. 1.p74 Effect of Ephedrine in Sport Ephedrine is misused by athletes for its euphoric action.1p42. Athletes try to misuse ephedrine because its use could be negotiated due to its presence in the over-the-counter medication.1p42 Side effects The main side effect is the cardiac arrthythmias. Cases of Ephedrine abuse Pseudoephedrine, phenylpropanolamine, and phenylephrine were removed from WADA list for banned substances in 2004, but they are still controlled by WADA for athlete’s misuse. Ephedrine is still on the banned list.1p76 In 1972 Olympics, the US swimmer, De Mont, was banned due to urinary ephedrine positive test in which he declared that its presence due to a medicine.1p76 In 1988, Linford Christie, at Seoul, was tested positive for cold cure substance, and he was nearly to lose his silver medal. Cocaine Cocaine was a component of Coca-Cola until it was classified as an illegal drug and it was removed in 1903.(1)The main therapeutic effect is its use as a local anaesthetic. Mechanism of action Cocaine exerts its sympathomimetic central effects by inhibiting the reuptake of noradrenaline, dopamine, and 5-HT into presynaptic terminals of the mesolimbic reward/pleasure pathway. Routes of administration â€Å"Snorting† is the most common route of administration of cocaine. The powder is drawn up to the noise, and is absorbed through the nasal epithelium into the blood. It reaches the brain within about three minutes. It can also administered by intravenous injection, reaching the brain in 15 seconds and the effects last for 15 minutes. Crack cocaine is smoked in a pipe, absorbed rapidly in the lungs and reaching the brain in about 5 seconds. Effects of cocaine is sport It was misused in sport due to its euphoric effect and due to reduction of fatigue. Side effects Its side effects are: tachycardia, hypertension and at high dosage, tremors and seizures may occur. Cardiotoxic metabolite may result due to concomitant use of cocaine with alcohol and anabolic steroids. Reported cases of cocaine misuse Len Bias, the US basketball player, and Don Rogers, the American footballer died from cocaine abuse.(1) Caffeine Caffeine is the most popular used drug which is found in many beverages like coffee, tea and soft drinks. Caffeine was banned by IOC but then it was withdrawn from the list by WADA in January 2004. However, its use is still monitored by WADA. Quantitative measurement for caffeine in the urine was established in 1984 at the Olympic Games in Sarajevo and Los Angeles. IOC set the level in the urine at 15 micrograms per millilitre and then in 1988, it was decreased to 12micrograms per millilitre. Studies showed that 1000mg doses of caffeine are required to excrete caffeine in the urine at levels more than 12 micrograms per millilitre. Routes of administration It is taken as tablets or injections(1) Effects of caffeine in sport High doses are required in sport to decrease fatigue and increase concentration.(1) Side effects tremors Narcotic analgesics These are called opiates. Raw opium contains morphine and codeine which have strong analgesic properties. Drugs that are usually misused are: Morphine, heroin, and methadone. All opiates were banned by IOC except dextromethorphan, pholcodeine, and diphenoxylate. Codeine was first banned but because many sports federation had refused that so it was then removed from the list due to its presence in many over-the-counter medications. Mechanism of action: Opiates bind to specific opiate receptors in the brain and spinal cord, and also interact with endogenous opiate peptides, enkephalins and endorphins, in mediating emotional highs and in the process of addiction.p(1)-23 Routes of administration Opiates are taken orally, by injection or by inhalation. Effects of narcotic analgesics in sport These are used for their euphoric and analgesic actions. They are used to mimic the injury during training or competition. Side effects These include vomiting, diarrhea, dry mouth, skin itching, loss of concentration, drowsiness, comas, and addiction. At high doses it may cause respiratory depression.(1) p24,,BBC Diuretics and other masking agents Diuretics are drugs that are used by people to remove fluid in order to decrease blood pressure. Examples are: furesamide, acetazolamide and chlorthalidone. Effects of diuretics in sport Diuretics are misused in sport to overcome the side effect fluid retention that is cause by athletes misusing anabolic steroids. They are also used to lower the athlete’s weight in sports that competition occurs in weight groups. P46red and BBC. Also diuretics are used to increase the flow of urine and hence increase the rate of excretion of abused drug or its metabolite in the urine so the abused drug could not be detected. Side effects These include: muscle cramps, dehydration, headache, nausea and kidney damage. Probenecid is used as making agent to disguise the presence of banned drugs and their metabolites by inhibiting the excretion of these through the kidney.p47 red. Probenecid is no more used because the use of gas chromatography and mass spectrometry can detect its presence and catch up the cheats. Beta blockers These were added to the list of doping classes in 1985. But because of its therapeutic use, the IOC in 1993 added them in the â€Å"classes of drugs subject to certain restrictions â€Å"part . They were used by athletes to increase their performance by increasing the cardiac output increasing blood flow to muscles.p-48-49 red Peptide and glycoprotein hormones These are natural substance that are produced by the body.BBC –doping I sport Effects in sport Corticotrophin: it induces the release of the adrenal corticosteroids thus mimic the pain after injury. (1)p47 Human Growth hormone(HGH) and chorionic gonadotrophin( HCG) : it has anabolic effect, so it increases size and strength of muscles. BBc Erythropoietin: it is a peptide hormonep48(1). It increases red blood cell production thus increasing the oxygen transfer by blood ,ie. Increase in the performance .BBC. Side effects HGH has main side effect that is, it may cause acromegaly.BBC EPO has main side effect that is, it may thicken the blood, resulting in heart attacks.BBC Chemical and physical manipulation It is the changing of urine sample by using substances or procedures in order to conceal the detection of a banned substance. Examples of manipulation are: the use of other’s urine, use of vinegar to affect the urine, epitestosterone to alter the ratio. BBC news,doping Anabolic Steroids What are Anabolic steroids? Testosterone was isolated in 1935.(2)p52. It is an endogenous steroidal hormone male hormone produced by testes in men. steroid 7. It is synthesized from cholesterol like all other steroidal hormones. Steroid 7. Epitestosterone is a testosterone isomer and found in a small ratio with respect to testosterone. Steroid7. Testosterone is responsible for the androgenic and anabolic effects.steroid7. The androgenic functions of testosterone are responsible for the modifications in the primary sexual male features. Steroid7. , while the anabolic effects are responsible for enhancing muscle growth, protein synthesis and erythrocytes. steroid 7. Anabolic steroids are group of synthetic modified derivatives of testosterone. steoid 10. When administered, they bind to the androgen receptors which are found in the prostate, skeletal muscle and central nervous system to give their mechanism of action. Their structure is developed and modified to improve the anabolic effects with decreased androgenic effects. steroid 10 Routes of administration Anabolic steroids are administered orally or intramuscularly. Nowadays, athletes are using transdermal patches, sublingual tablets, nasal sprays, and dermatological gels of testosterone to escape positive tests(2). P 3 Why do athletes misuse anabolic steroids Athletes use anabolic steroids due to their anabolic effects, so they are used due to its positive effect on the skeletal muscle tissues. They are used to increase strength and muscle size. They are also used to increase body weight, protein metabolism and collagen synthesis. Steoird 6 and 35 . Some athletes use anabolic steroids because they â€Å"want to be big†. steroid 7. Side effects Cardiovascular effects: Anabolic steroids ingestion results in severe coronary heart disease. They reduce high density lipoprotein (HDL) and increase low density lipoprotein (LDL). Steroid 25- steroid 7. resulting in atherosclerosis. Increase heart stroke Anabolic steroids increase blood clotting and thus favouring thrombosis resulting in heart attacks. steroid 26 Liver problems Oral anabolic steroids results in cholestatic hepatitis and jaundice. steorid 7,26 Also increase in the liver enzymes( aspartate amino transferase, alanine amino transferase and lactate dehydrogenase) is encountered with the use of steroids. steroid 37 Sexual side effects High doses of anabolics in a study by Holma, shows that the sperm counts decreased by 73% and azoospermia occurred for 3 individuals i.e affecting fertility. Steroid 7 They affect secretion of the reproductive hormones like testosterone and thus reducing libido due to decrease level of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone(FSH).sterodi 37. Anabolic steroids abuse may result in prostate cancer. Steroid 37 Gynaecomastia It is the enlargement of the mammary tissues in men due to transfer of androgens to estradiol and estrone. steroid 7,37 Psychological effects A study in USA showed that anabolic steroids revealed changes in mood such as mania and depression. steorid7 Other side effects include: hyperinsulinemia, hypertension, tendon damage, steroid 26. edema, muscle spasm, acne hirsutism, and deepening of voice. Steroid 35 History of anabolic steroids misuse and drug testing The use of banned substances such as caffeine, cocaine and strychnine started during the 19th century in most of the sport events like cycling, swimming, and distance running. steroid 26. The abuse of steroids in sport started in 1950s by the soviet weightlifting teams.p54 green,steroid26. In 1960 Olympic Games, anabolic steroids use was restricted to Soviet weightlifting, but by 1964, their use is increased in all strength sports. p45 green. 7. Anabolics use became more common in most sports in 1972 Olympic Games. Steroid 26 Anabolic steroids use has been banned by medical commission of IOC in 1974 and has been added to the list of banned substances of IOC in 1975.steroid 10, 7 Although the first formal testing was introduced in 1972 Munich Olympics, there was no testing for anabolic steroids (7). P4. The first formal test for anabolic steroid was in 1976 Montreal Summer Olympics(7). First positive tests for steroids were in 1976 Montreal Olympics, in which 8 athletes, seven weightlifters and one female athlete in a field event were caught for steroid abuse(7).p75., while no positive tests were reported in 1980 Moscow Olympic Games. Anabolic androgenic steroids are one of the most widely used drugs by athletes to enhance their performance and physical appearance. Steroid 6. Their use extends to be not among professional athletes but also among high school male and female students. Steroid 26 WADA accredited laboratories published statistics form 1993 till 2003 and this showed that anabolic steroids are the most widely used banned substances.p32.red. 1993 1994 2001 2002 2003 stimulants 22.8% 24% 15.4% 14.9% 19% Anabolic steroids 59.9% 50.5% 40.1% 36.8% 32.1% Unlike amphetamines and other stimulants which were taken on the day of competition ( which causes sudden death due to cardiac arrest), anabolic steroids are administered during the training exercise and not before the competition periods. P31 red. they are taken in cycles with duration of six- twelve weeks, and usually 2-3 cycles are taken in a year. Steroid7. The introduction of the â€Å"out of competition† testing programmes limited the use of the anabolic steroids. P46 red Systematic doping: biggest scandal One of the biggest scandals for steroid abuse was in the German Democratic Republic, they were used from 1965 to 1989 and this allows the East German to win many medals. Coaches and doctors in East Germany follow a programme for systematic doping with steroids. In 1965, a pharmaceutical company had developed chlor-substituted derivative of methandrostenolone (Oral-Turbinabol R), and from 1968 GRD started to introduce it to female athletes in the Olympic Games. Steroid 40 Detection of anabolic steroids: Detection of urinary anabolic steroid by radioimmunoassay Drug testing was based on radioimmunoassay screening of urine samples from athletes for detection of banned substances and then gas chromatography/mass spectrometry for confirmation the positive tests (7). Testing at that time was insensitive and not selective due to the fact that testing was done during competition periods and anabolic steroids were usually taken for long periods, so athletes used to quit these drugs at competition periods so their level will decrease in the urine and could not be detected and the tests would give false negative (19). Detection of urinary anabolic steroids by GC/MS, measuring testosterone to epitestosterone (T/E ratio) Drug testing at that time could not differentiate between endogenous testosterone and synthetic anabolics.steroid7. Testosterone was introduced in the banned list of IOC in 1983, it was the first endogenous substance to be banned, after the discovery of the detection method in 1982. p35red. In 1984 Olympic Games, all urine samples from athletes were screened by GC/MS for detection and identification. The T/E ra